Green and Emerging Microextraction Strategies for Bioanalytical Determination of Hormones: Trends, Challenges, and Applications

The document reviews green and emerging microextraction strategies for hormone determination, emphasizing their importance in clinical diagnostics and environmental sustainability. Traditional methods like liquid–liquid extraction are less sustainable due to high solvent use, whereas techniques such as solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME) offer improved sensitivity and selectivity with reduced environmental impact. The integration of advanced materials like nanostructured sorbents and molecularly imprinted polymers enhances selectivity. The review covers various hormone classes, including steroidal, thyroid, peptide/protein hormones, catecholamines, and eicosanoids, highlighting the need for sophisticated analytical methods due to their low concentrations and structural complexities. The document underscores the potential of these techniques to improve routine analysis and biomarker utility, aligning with green analytical chemistry principles. Future research aims to enhance selectivity, integrate with wearable devices, and standardize methods for clinical applications.