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In this study, behavioral disturbances were commonly observed with levetiracetam, while somnolence was frequently reported with oxcarbazepine among patients with refractory epilepsy.

In this study, the side effects of long-term sodium valproate treatment for refractory epilepsy were generally slight and transient, with severe side effects not observed.

In this case report, a transgender woman with refractory epilepsy began estrogen therapy for gender-affirming purposes, experiencing stable epilepsy and reduced gender dysphoria through ongoing multidisciplinary care, highlighting the importance of careful management for similar patients.

This study found that both levetiracetam and valproate sodium effectively reduced seizure frequency and duration in patients with refractory epilepsy, but levetiracetam had fewer side effects related to liver enzyme changes.

This case report identified a 4-month-old boy with Menkes disease, a neurodegenerative disorder of copper metabolism, noting symptoms like recurrent seizures, developmental delay, and specific physical characteristics, confirmed by genetic sequencing showing a pathogenic ATP7A mutation and low serum copper and ceruloplasmin levels.