TLDR Sex hormones may affect COVID-19 severity, with estrogen possibly reducing risk and testosterone potentially increasing it.
The document discusses the influence of sex hormones on the severity and progression of COVID-19. Males are twice as likely to develop severe or fatal disease compared to females, possibly due to the impact of sex hormones. Estrogen and androgen, the two main sex steroids, regulate several elements involved in COVID-19 pathogenesis, including immune responses and susceptibility to tissue injury. Estrogen tends to downregulate the SARS-CoV-2 main receptor, while testosterone may enhance its expression and promote viral replication. The response to COVID-19 vaccines may also vary by gender, with females often showing a more robust antibody response. However, a meta-analysis showed a 33% reduced risk of developing COVID-19 in males. The balance of androgen to estrogen may modulate the virus-host interaction and immune response, with estrogen enhancing anti-viral defenses and immune activity while androgen displays immunosuppressive action. More large-scale studies are needed to fully understand these effects.
139 citations
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December 2020 in “Cell Stem Cell” Male hormones affect COVID-19 severity and certain drugs targeting these hormones could help reduce the risk.
36 citations
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November 2020 in “Journal of The European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology” 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors may reduce COVID-19 symptoms in bald males.
125 citations
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August 2020 in “Frontiers in Immunology” Men generally have more severe COVID-19 cases and higher death rates than women due to biological differences.
19 citations
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November 2021 in “Reviews in endocrine and metabolic disorders” Sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone may affect COVID-19 severity differently in men and women, potentially influencing prevention and treatment strategies.
125 citations
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August 2020 in “Frontiers in Immunology” Men generally have more severe COVID-19 cases and higher death rates than women due to biological differences.
9 citations
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May 2021 in “Dermatologic Therapy” Possible link between androgens and COVID-19 severity; more research needed.
23 citations
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September 2021 in “Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology” Testosterone's effects on COVID-19 are unclear and need more research.
9 citations
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March 2021 in “Hormones” COVID-19 may affect male fertility and women might have better outcomes due to hormonal and immune differences.
April 2023 in “American Journal of Transplantation” Hormone replacement therapy may lower the risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes in non-immunosuppressed people and male organ transplant recipients.
